Synthetic Fuels Summary

Section 1 625kb	Acknowledgment				ii
	Preface				iii
	Summary				v
	1.0	Introduction			1
	2.0	Energy Future			2
		2.1	Historical Perspective		2
		2.2	Petroleum and Natural Gas Resources		4
		2.3	Projections of Energy Use		7
Section 2 596kb	3.0	Federal Activities			13
		3.1	Resource Assessments		13
		3.2	Synfuels R & D		14
		3.3	Synfuels Demonstrations		16
		3.4	Commercialization Assistance		18
		3.5	Industry Support		20
			3.5.1	DOE Industry Support Program	20
			3.5.2	U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporation	21
	4.0	Markets			24
		4.1	Market Characteristics		24
		4.2	Liquid and Gaseous Fuels to Consumers		27
			4.2.1	Market for Liquid Fuels	27
			4.2.2	Market for Gaseous Fuels	28
		4.3	Future Energy Needs		28
		4.4	Variations and Flexibility in the System		31
		4.5	Synfuel Properties and Applications		32
Section 3 569kb	5.0	Domestic Energy Resources			34
		5.1	Introduction		34
		5.2	Crude Oil and Natural Gas		35
			5.2.1	Crude Oil	35
			5.2.2	Natural Gas	38
			5.2.3	Unconventional Natural Gas	40
		5.3	Heavy Oils		42
			5.3.1	Heavy Oils	42
			5.3.2	Tar Sands	46
		5.4	Oil Shale		50
Section 4 616kb		5.5	Coal		55
		5.6	Other		67
			5.6.1	Nuclear	67
			5.6.2	Hydroelectricity	67
			5.6.3	Geothermal	68
			5.6.4	Solar	68
	6.0	Conversion Technologies			70
		6.1	Fundamentals for all Synfuel Plants		70
			6.1.1	Physical Size of Synfuel Plants	70
			6.1.2	Complexity of Synfuel Plants	73
			6.1.3	Cost Estimates for Synfuel Plants	74
			6.1.4	Efficiency of Synfuel Technologies	76
Section 5 678kb		6.2	Petroleum Production Including Heavy Oil		77
		6.3	Pyrolysis		79
			6.3.1	Retorting of Oil Shale	80
			6.3.2	Pyrolysis of Coal	90
		6.4	Gasification		94
			6.4.1	Moving Bed Gasifiers	96
Section 6 694kb			6.4.2	Fluidized Bed Gasifiers	99
			6.4.3	Entrained Flow Gasifiers	100
			6.4.4	Rotary Kiln Gasifiers	102
			6.4.5	Molten Fluid Gasifiers	102
			6.4.6	In Situ Gasification	102
			6.4.7	Catalytic Gasification	103
			6.4.8	Hydrogen Production Without Gasification	103
		6.5	Direct Liquefaction		104
		6.6	Indirect Liquefaction		109
		6.7	Coal-Oil Mixtures		111
		6.8	Magnetohydrodynamics		113
	7.0	Synfuel Comparisons			116
		7.1	Synfuel Products		116
		7.2	Technology Comparisons		117
		7.3	Economic Comparison		118
Section 7 769kb		7.4	Environmental Impacts		122
			7.4.1	Laws and Regulation	123
			7.4.2	Air Emissions	127
			7.4.3	Water Supply and Wastewater	129
			7.4.4	Solid Wastes	132
			7.4.5	Health and Safety	134
			7.4.6	Socioeconomic Impacts	135
			7.4.7	Environmental Conclusion	136
		7.5	General Comparisons		137
	Abbreviations Table				139
	References				141